Insects and Other Beasties

A Glimpse at History

People's relationship to bugs has not always been as fearful as it is today. With the exception of locusts, there is little record of insect infestation in the past. When locust swarms appeared, whether in the ancient Middle East or in medieval Europe, they were seen as punishment by God. Many times they appeared in conjunction with other plagues such as flood, drought, pestilence, war, and famine. The recommendations for insect control in these cases were penance for the sins committed.

Some writers cite the prophet Joel as evidence that insects always have been a major problem to the grower:

That which the palmerworm hath left hath the locust eaten; and that which the locust hath left hath the cankerworm eaten; and that which the cankerworm hath left hath the caterpillar eaten.

(From Joel 1:4

However, we are dealing here with a prophet's warning, and he includes droughts, earthquakes, fires, war, the sun turned to darkness, and the moon turned to blood in subsequent verses, in order to bring the people back to the path of righteousness, at which time, the Lord promises to restore to you the years that the locust hath eaten, the cankerworm, and the caterpillar, and the palmerworm, my great army which I sent among you. (Joel 2:25) then, ye shall eat plenty and swords will be beaten into plowshares and spears into pruning hooks. In pre-modern times, the relationship of man to the little beasties has been one ranging from delight, to awe, to reverence and respect. According to Nahuatl tradition, the red ant brought mankind corn, being commanded by the gods to find food for humanity. The Iroquois say that the locusts put their orenda (power) to work by chirping to control the summer heat for the ripening of the corn. Italian and Swiss-German peasants made similar connections: In agosto quando canta la cigala dicono: è segno che il panico e il granturco maturane bene (When the locust sings in August that the millet and maize will ripen well); Wenn die Grille im September singt, so wird das Korn billig (When the crickets sing in September, the grain will be plentiful).

Sir James Frazer cites examples of magical propitiations of the insects by peasants. Estonian peasants will not let a child kill a weevil, admonishing: The more we hurt him, the more he hurts us. Weevils are given a fine name and are buried or put under a stone with a corn offering. Transylvanian Saxons guard against leaf-flies by shutting the eyes and casting three handfuls of oats in different directions. To guard the field against bird, insect, or beast, the sower goes over the field imitating broadcasting with the empty hand, saying: I sow this for everything that flies and creeps, that walks and stands, that sings and springs, in the name of God, the Father, etc. A garden is kept free of caterpillars by the German peasant woman by walking at night all around the garden dragging a broom, not looking behind, while saying: Good evening, Mother Caterpillar, you shall come with your husband to church. All the while the garden gate is left open. Frazer tells that the Sea Dyaks of Sarawak catch vermin such as grasshoppers and put them on a tiny boat well-stocked with favorite food and then float them down a stream. If that does not work, a model crocodile is set in the fields and offered food, rice wine, and a chicken; it is then hoped the crocodile will devour the crop pests. In the Balkans and the Mideast, bugs such as locusts and beetles are buried and a funeral is held for them. In Syria, when caterpillars invaded field or vineyard, the virgins were gathered and one of the caterpillars was taken and a girl made its mother. Then they buried it and bewailed it. Thereafter, they conducted the mother to the place where the caterpillars were, consoling her, in order that all the caterpillars might leave the garden.

In the Middle Ages, insect prevention was based on prayer, but once they became a problem, they could be taken to court. A set of regulations written by Burgundian tells us how legal procedures were carried out against grasshoppers:

A court would be convened upon written request, a judge appointed, and a prosecuting and defense lawyer assigned. The prosecutor would present the case against the grasshopper and demand that they be found guilty and burned. The defense would argue that the demand was illegal because first the grasshopper had to be requested to leave the country within a specified period of time. If at the expiration of this period they had not left, the proper sentence was excommunication.

Some jurists at that time argued for the rights of the birds who would suffer at the extradition of the grasshoppers. In Berne, Switzerland, caterpillars were excommunicated by the archbishop and banished in 1479 and in Lausanne, maybugs (common cockchafer) were banished for their misbehavior in 1493.

In many instances bugs were not considered in a negative sense at all, as children's rhymes and peasant sayings indicate. Some bugs were sacred to humanity. For the Egyptians the scarab beetle, rolling a ball of dung, was a sacred symbol of the sun being moved across the heavens. The hornet was a war symbol, as was the fly, of which an amulet was given to brave warriors for their courage and impudence in battle. When the seven grasses bloom in the fall, the Japanese catch or buy crickets and other insects and place them in little cages. At a certain ceremonial moment, the little prisoners are freed and fly at the light of the many paper lanterns chirping to the delight of all the participants.

In most cultures insects are seen as omens sent by the gods. Some insects like the ladybird, or ladybug, are held in high esteem, called vaches à Dieu (God's cows) or Bete de la Vierge (the Virgin's beast) by the French, Manenkäfer (Mary's chafers, Mary's bug) by the Germans, and Hmmel-guegerli (heaven watchers) by some of the Swiss. Ladybugs should never be harmed. Folklore sees in bees and ants symbols of wise industry, selflessness, and prudence.

What is an insect?

For Darwinists, the insect, like man, is a parasite on vegetation, and is therefore, a competitor with man for limited food resources. A different picture reveals itself when we operate with the understanding of nature as a super organism, when we see that the insect has its definite place in the scala naturae and plays an important role in the Wheel of Life.

Insects and other invertebrates are part of the macrocosmic breakdown cycle, the cycle of de-manifestation in the Wheel of Life. This is evident when we see ants, carrion beetles, and maggots break down organic tissue where the life force (or etheric body), which provides structure and form, has left the organism at the mercy of the chaotisizing forces of dead matter. This is evident in the blow fly maggots, which eat gangrenous tissue, while at the same time secreting allantoin that helps wounds heal faster.15 We see this in the appearance of wireworms in soils that have undecomposed organic substances in them, such as newly turned over sod. Even the beautiful bees and butterflies help dissipate the flowers by carrying off pollen and nectar before the flower dies back and returns to seed. Life would not be possible if it were not for the armies of insects breaking up dead or dying plant and animal tissue, so that bacteria and fungi can recycle them for new growth.

Plants that are eaten by insects, especially if the damage is heavy, are already weak or dying; their etheric forces are ebbing low. Any gardener will have observed that it is precisely the weak and sickly plants, probably at the end of the bed where the compost or irrigation did not reach, that are devoured by the bugs. In the same way, farmers will notice that it is the runty, weak animals that are most infested with lice, ticks, and other vermin. With unbending instinct and persistence, the insect world will attack and devour that which is not fit for life. This helps us realize that an insect infestation is not the cause of the problem, but the symptom. Plants that need to be protected by insecticides are unhealthy and unhealthful to begin with; they do not make good food, as their deficiency in life force is transmitted to the animal and humans who feed upon them. In order to avoid insect troubles, our work as gardeners must be to maintain the life force in plants. The gardener's main duty is to see that this vital flow of etheric forces goes on uninterrupted from seed and seedling, through the vegetative growth phase, through the flowering phase, and, finally, to the fruiting and seeding stage.

The insect doppelganger accompanies the metamorphic stages of the plant all along, from egg to its own vegetative larval growth, to the budlike pupa, and finally to the flowerlike adult. Like mirror images these two kingdoms of nature indicate their relationship, as is poetically expressed by the idea that the flower is an earthbound butterfly and the butterfly is a liberated flower. Though some bugs are general feeders, many are associated with one characteristic plant of their own, such as the cabbage looper (Trichoplusia) with the brassica, the bean weevil with beans, the carrot caterpillar with carrots, the Colorado beetle with nightshades, or the pretty monarch butterfly with milkweed. The proboscis of the butterfly and the nectar-filled chalice of the flower form a symbiotic whole; this is the case with many plants and insects. Only abstract, alienated thinking can conceive of an insect-free garden, or fantasize about the eradication of insects. An insect species that gets out of control and seriously harms a crop is only an indication of an existing imbalance in nature. There is some evidence that insects are needed by the plants upon which they feed, their droppings containing trace minerals, hormones, and other substances synthesized in their bodies that are of benefit to the growth of the plants. Studies show that some plants can lose up to 30 percent of their leaf mass without much lessening of the yield.

In a healthy situation, the insect larvae will feed upon older leaves that have been shaded out and are yellowing. Others feed upon mulch and litter. Only if the ground is bare will some insects (or slugs) consume the entire plant. Only if the whole plant is unhealthy, or weakened, will the whole plant be attacked. A healthy plant protects itself with numerous exudates that are becoming known to organic chemistry as alkaloids, glycosides, terpenes, tannins, alcohols, esters, acids, saponins, steroids, carotenoids, etc., as well as pheromones that will attract insect predators. Sickly or weak plants do not manufacture enough of these substances.

Another way of looking at the insect and invertebrate world is to see it as the lower level of the working of astral forces in nature. The border between the manifested etheric (the plant world) and the manifested astral (the animal world) is where the pollinating insect meets the blossom and the worm meets the root which has outlived its function. At these places the plant loses its true characteristic; it dies or dissipates itself. In the flower petals the etheric vitality of the green leaves and young shoots has been sacrificed; the plant falls apart into pollen, nectar, fragrance, and seed. Bees, butterflies, moths, bumblebees, and others help to dissipate the plant into temporary non-manifestation by dispersing the pollen and nectar. Approximately 85 percent of our domesticated plants depend on insects for pollination. We would be in a sad state of affairs if these proverbially industrious beasties were not at work. This is something humanity should consider with all the dusting, spraying, and fumigating.

Even general feeders, such as locusts or gypsy moths, which appear in massive infestations, fall into the role of dematerializing organic substance that is low in life energy. They appear at their worst during droughts, unseasonal weather, and other environmental disturbances, when the etheric energy of an entire region is at a low point. That this is so is shown by the fact that locust plagues are associated with other disasters, such as droughts, famines, bubonic plagues, pestilence, etc. as recorded in Asia, ancient Egypt, and medieval Europe. Sometimes these disasters are related to cosmic rhythms that superimpose themselves on the etheric of the earth.

Another way of looking at the insect is in terms of the old teaching of the four elements. The insect, when its metamorphosis is complete, goes through the four elements in its life cycle, starting from an earth-egg stage (often a saline solution concentrated in an egg, buried in the ground), to a water-larval stage (succulent, mobile larva, often living in a liquid medium), to an airy-pupa state (a cocoon exposed to air and light), and culminating in a fire-adult stage. The goal of the insect is to grow into elemental fire. Its affinity to the fire element is shown in the attraction that the flame and light have for the adults of many species; it is shown in the luminescence of some, and in the nuptial flights of bees and ant in the sunlit springtime air.

In the old elemental teachings, earth and water are connected with the coming into manifestation, whereas fire is connected with the going out of manifestation, with the sulfur process that involves the disappearance from the visible world. The insects, with their affinity for the fire element, work as an astral fire upon the etheric world of the vegetation. Just as physical fire takes wood and other combustible substances out of manifestation, so the insect, working on living or near-living substances, takes the plant or animal that has lost its life force out of existence. In peasant imaginations insects have been associated with the fire spirits or salamanders. The skaldic poets of the North tell of Loki, a fire god, being able to change himself into a fly. Many cultures associate destructive insets with demonic forces that return cosmos (the orderly, structured world) back to chaos (the amorphous and unstructured world). In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles reveals himself as the lord of insects and the son of Chaos. He is the doppelgänger of man, just as the insect is of the plant. Perhaps one of the reasons for the irrational fear people have of insects, of the fire beings, is that they are often associated with death. Even butterflies have been linked to death, the adult slipping out of the chrysalis likened to the soul leaving the body. Also bees, associated by early Rosicrucians with selfless service and selfless death, must die when they sting in defense.

The fundamental idea of biodynamics is to channel energy into positive developments, and not to squander energy fighting what is deemed negative. Instead of poisoning insects, this positive direction calls for good composting practices, crop rotation, planting by the signs, companion planting, and good garden care in order to deal with the insects. The insects will still be there, but will pose no problem. On the other hand, investing energy into fighting the negative is severely frustrating. Ever since the advent of powerful insecticides and other sophisticated methods of fighting insect pests, the problems have gotten worse.

It seemed such a simple solution when—as a side product of war-related research—chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates were discovered to poison pests. Instead, we have poisoned our environment, our fellow birds and mammals, and ourselves; our groundwater is contaminated and toxic residues remain in our foods. The bugs were able to mutate and adapt to every poison devised, becoming resistant to the point where some species even now thrive on the poison. Predators that keep the pests in check are wiped out instead, or greatly reduced, because, for one thing, being higher up on the food chain, they accumulate more toxins. After insecticidal application, it has been noted that other insect species, formerly harmless, become pests. Agriculturists' profits have been shrinking because of the great cost of insecticides, and yet the crop losses due to insects increase despite (because of) ever-heavier doses.

New pests, which have no historical record of being very detrimental in earlier times, have been cropping up in increasing numbers. In the United States in the last two centuries, the Colorado beetle, Hessian fly, cotton weevil, screwworms, grasshoppers, armyworms, gypsy moth, chinch bug, and others have become a problem. This is due to un-ecological cultivating practices, monocropping, insects transported with goods into new regions, crops grown outside their natural environment, the destruction of natural predators, as well as the synergistic effects of chemicals in the ecotope. Herbicides have been shown to trigger pest outbreaks; for example, the 2, 4, D sprayed on corn increased the corn borer larvae and made the moths more fertile. Fertilizer imbalances brought about by the application of synthetic NPK fertilizer cause insect problems. This is tacitly admitted by the perpetrators of the Green Revolution, whose miracle crops only survive with the application of massive doses of poison. Nitrogen is especially problematic. As Steiner indicates in his Agricultural Course, nitrogen is the carrier of world-astrality. Healthy plant growth depends upon a proper balance between the etheric (in part manifested by sugars, starches, and other carbohydrates) and the astral (in part manifested by proteins and amino acids). Excessive nitrogen application draws aphids and mites, while too little draws other bugs to devour the sickly plants. Phosphorus deficiency increases white fly and spider mites. Modern fertilizing techniques have decreased the amount of silicon content in plants, especially in cereals. Silicon in the tissue makes many plants insect-resistant and unappealing to insect mandibles.

The need (or wish) for large and quick profit has misled many a farmer and gardener to the use of strong poisons against these beings whose function merely indicates unhealthy processes already present. Instead of turning to the wisdom of a loving, organic agriculture, further black magic practices are being devised. These include bacteriological warfare; the breeding of radiation-exposed sterilized insects that will not be able to produce viable offspring when released to mate with fertile partners; the use of juvenile hormones that retard the larva and prevent it from ever reaching maturity; new and more insidious poisons; the use of lights and scents (pheromones) that lure, trap, and destroy multitudes; and others. The newest stroke is to genetically modify crops so that they will poison the insects that feed on them. Genes of the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) were incorporated into corn, cotton, potatoes, peanuts, and other crops. In the United States, 85 percent of the corn is genetically modified with Bt in order to poison the corn borer, the cornear worm, and others. Collateral damage on non-target insects occurs, as evidenced by a 30 percent decrease in the monarch butterfly population (monarch caterpillars eat the pollen of Bt corn that dusts their food plants). Even with these new methods, there are indications that the insects are mutating, adapting, and becoming resistant, and that there are most likely other unforeseen, harmful effects on the rest of nature. The entomologists and chemists involved remind one of the sorcerer's apprentices, whose every solution to the basic problem creates new problems.

Perhaps the Bible is right when it considers insects (locusts) to be sent by supernatural agencies in consequence of having erred from the path of life. It is suggested that the insect pests are stopped by repentance (L. re pensum = to reconsider) concerning the way mankind has been carrying on its business.

Materialistic science cannot really understand insects. The tremendous adaptability to adverse conditions brought about by DDT, arsenic, and other poisons indicates a great biological intelligence. Despite very costly efforts to eradicate pests, not one species has been eliminated successfully. Who has not been amazed at the rapidity with which aphids can suddenly populate a cabbage or bean patch? Already as it is born, parthenogenically and viviparously, the young aphid has embryos of several hundred more developing inside it.

Consider the marvelous architecture of the hexagonal honeycomb, the paper wasp nest, the air-conditioned termite hills in Africa; consider the uncanny camouflage of the walking stick, the tomato hook worm—which looks like a rolled up tomato leaf—or moths that look like old yellowed leaves; consider the tachinid fly larva that slowly eats its caterpillar host from the inside, making sure that no vital organs are damaged until it has completely hollowed it out and is ready to slip out. Some insects seem to have established their patterns hundreds of millions of years ago; and some have found a niche for themselves only yesterday, such as the drugstore beetle, which can live in bottles of arsenic and other poisons for years as its favorite habitat. What overwhelming intelligence is there in the social insects, in ants, bees, and termites, as they divide into social bodies of egg-laying queens, armies of workers, fighters, nursemaids, and other functionaries! This remarkable adaptability of insects cannot be explained merely by microscopic or chemical analysis of individual bugs. We do our observations more justice when we consider once again the notion of an organizing genius for each species, that guides and directs each insect as part of a concerted whole, much like the cells and organs of our bodies are subject to an overall structural, functional gestalt. That this organizing intelligence exists beyond the makeup of the single individual insect is seen when a single ant is removed from its colony and errs haplessly about until it dies. A hive or a colony of social insects might be analogous to an organ for the individual that marks the genius of the species. At this point, we once again reconsider the idea of supersensible group souls, group-egos, animal bosses, grandmothers, or grandfathers that are spoken of in the lore of most native peoples. Shamans are specialists who natives claim can talk with these supersensible beings. With this in mind, perhaps we can find a better way of dealing with insect problems.

Insect species are still very macrocosmic beings. They have not condensed and centralized into a single body with centralized organs. Considerations of this nature show us that killing an insect is not of the significance that killing a bird or a mammal is. It is more like pruning plants or cutting hair or fingernails. It is not a deeply incarnated astrality, let alone a self-conscious ego that is killed, but a being with very diffuse macrocosmically rooted soul functions whose essence is found in supersensible realms.

Beneficial Insects

Estimates of the number of insect species vary. There are several hundred thousand species, of which 90 percent are considered beneficial. Of the remaining 10 percent, only a small portion qualifies as serious pests. Some so-called pests might cause slight scarring of the fruit rind, resulting in cosmetic damage that in no way diminishes the quantity of quality of the food.

Pollination is one of the most important functions of insects. All of our fruits (citrus, apples, pears, strawberries, cranberries, etc.), most vegetables, grains, cotton, tobacco, and the clovers, which feed our livestock, depend on insect pollination. Some insects are specialized to pollinate only one or a few species, such as the fig wasp, the figs. The members of the rose family are pollinated by bees; the legumes by bees and bumblebees; night-flowering plants by moths; and the carrot family (umbellifers) by flies, bugs, and wasps.

We are dependent on insects for honey, beeswax, silk, shellac, and various dyes and medicines.

Many insects and other arthropods are important as predators and parasites that keep populations of potential pests in check. Entomophagous insects include the dragon and damsel flies that eat mosquitoes, ladybug beetles that eat aphids, and wasps (Vespidae and Sphecidae) that eat caterpillars and grasshoppers; lacewings (whole larvae are known as ant-lions) eat aphids; various shield bugs (Hemiptera) eat caterpillars; praying mantises eat grasshoppers and any other creeper or crawler they can get their tarsi on; tachinid flies parasitize other bugs by laying eggs in them; and so on.

Carrion beetles, dung beetles, dung flies, and others function as scavengers, removing diseased and obnoxious substances. Ants, termites, and beetles turn dead logs into humus for the forest. Soil insects are important in churning, aerating, and adding organic residues to the soil. Some species keep weeds in check. Most insects are food for the animals that delight our senses: fish, frogs and lizards, birds, skunks, moles, shrews, and hedgehogs. Finally the aesthetic delight of delicate butterflies and moths; the shiny, metallic glimmer of beetles; the humming of the bees; the songs of crickets, locusts, and katydids; and the dance of fireflies in warm summer nights must not be forgotten.

With this in mind we can appreciate the need for caution when it comes to indiscriminate spraying or poisoning. Even organic, biodegradable insecticides should be used with caution, if at all.

Practical Application

Most biodynamic gardeners are not much worried about insects, for seldom do they become a problem. Biodynamics works on a preventative, prophylactic basis. Once again, it is the practice of conscientious composting, companion planting, rotation, seeking to plant at the right cosmically determined moment, and the use of biodynamic preparations that maintains the balance. A healthy garden must have bugs in it, at least a thousand different species! One can even admire the squash bug and take delight in the cabbage butterfly without having to panic.

Pest damage is kept low by insuring smooth, steady growing from seed to harvest. This involves proper watering, avoiding droughts or sudden cold showers during the heat of the day, for this shocks the plant and interrupts the flow of vital energy. Planting in the proper season and sign implies making cosmic energies available to the plants. Composting guarantees the kind of nutrient release that will not be excessive or too slow, making for harmonious growth of insect-resistant plants. Companion planting consists of picking varieties that grow well together, as well as planting flowers and herbs that keep insect levels lower. Flowers and herbs on the border of the garden plot help mask odors attractive to insects, according to one theory, and flower nectar keeps predators alive when pests are in low supply. Here are some examples:

• Garlic is such a companion for many crops; nasturtium is good with squash for protection against white fly and wooly aphids.
• Beans and potato rows alternated keep both bean beetles and Colorado beetles down.
• Carrots alternated with leeks or onions keep the carrot fly as well as the onion maggot in low frequency.
• Marigolds keep nematodes from infesting the soil (nematodes, or eelworms, are mainly a problem in soils with insufficient organic matter).
• Aromatic herbs reduce bug damage: savory aids beans; basil helps tomatoes.31
• Certain catch crops, such as soybeans, calendula, radish (for flea beetle), and tomatillo, attract hungry insects and will keep the other plants relatively bug free.

Besides companion plants which add color, fragrance, and beauty to the garden, one can create optimal conditions for other predators of insects, such as birds, amphibians, reptiles, and some mammals. It takes keen observation and becomes a lifelong study to see the intricate ecological connections that exist in the garden. In the chain of nature, the birds eat at the extreme periphery of the plant; they eat seeds or bugs from the crown of the plant and scratch grubs and worms from the foot of the plant. Some birds tend more to the side of the seeds, such as seed-eating sparrows, blackbirds, finches, and pigeons; others are mainly or purely insectivorous, such as swallows, whip-poor-wills, purple martins, warblers, vireos, wrens, robins, and woodpeckers; whereas most are omnivorous, varying their diet between seed, berry, and bug. Most of our beautiful songbirds are strongly insectivorous. To lure these creatures into the garden ecotope, trees and hedges, bird feeders, baths, and shelters must be provided. Various seeds and suet (for woodpeckers, titmice, and chickadees) can be fed. Birdhouses are easily made.

Hedges not only keep chilling and desiccating winds from blowing across the garden, but make for ideal bird shelters. The wild fruits and berries found in a hedge can feed the gardener as well as the birds. Elderberries make good diaphoretic tea from the blossoms and wine and jam from the berries. Hawthorn, roan, rose, blackberry, mulberry, chokecherry, and other berry bushes provide teas or jams, or both. Hazelnut hedges bless the gardener with filberts. One can plant hedges of hackberry, dogwood, barberry, viburnum, and others that are of aesthetic appeal and keep the birds from some of the prized domesticated berries—though nets might become also necessary for the latter. Even wild patches of evergreens or blackberry thickets are useful for nesting areas for our feathered helpers, or as shelters for toads, garter snakes, turtles, and skunks, all of which are avid gobblers of bugs. Toads like to live in the moist atmosphere of the compost pile. From the magnitude of their droppings, consisting of hundreds of chitinous skeletons, one can ascertain how beneficial they are. If new toads are procured, it is a good practice to leave them in their cages in the garden for a few days, for they need some time to acclimate themselves; otherwise they will start hopping back to where they came from. Garter snakes like to patrol the garden, keeping insect populations at a minimum. Some gardeners let bantam hens, ducks, and geese range in the garden but might lose a lettuce or tomato or two in the process.

All these procedures and precautions, aided by some handpicking, should be enough to prevent any major insect problems in the garden. If for some reason, however, there is an infestation, the gardener ought to investigate thoroughly and study the problem closely before reacting with poisons. Even organic poisons kill beneficial predators and upset the biological balance. With the aid of one's garden diary, one should recall the weather conditions, type of fertilizer used, type of crop, stellar constellation of planting date or outbreak, preceding crop rotations, and other vital data that might indicate what led to the outbreak. One might also study the life habits of the pest to see how one can cope with it in the simplest way.

Ecological interconnection must be understood before any drastic action is taken. Sometimes people find holes in their cabbages or tomatoes with an earwig, pill bug, or even an earthworm in it, promptly declaring these hapless creatures guilty. Real observation would show that they merely sough shelter in these cavities, feeding on the droppings left behind by the slugs, which ate the holes in the first place.

During adverse conditions, when plants are likely to be befallen by a bug, or in the early stages of an infestation, nonpoisonous teas and preparations can be given to strengthen the plants. Helen and John Philbrick, in The Bug Book, provide a number of such recipes.

Compost water, manure teas, and comfrey or nettle ferments aid weakened plants in regaining their life forces. Stinging nettle ferment or tea slightly changes the makeup of the plant sap, so that the plant does not taste as good to the bug as before. Only as a final measure, if all else fails, might one resort to some organic, biodegradable poison. Most insecticides can be grown right in the garden. Plants from which insecticides can be made include beautiful flowers such as pansies, marigolds, asters, chrysanthemums, petunias, cosmos, nasturtium, coreopsis, tobacco, and herbs such as feverfew, wormwood, tansy, coriander, and garlic. Most of these flowers or herbs can be dried, pulverized for dusting, or brewed into a tea. Tea mixed with old-fashioned soap, such as green soap, to make the poison stick to the leaves longer, will do the job. There is really no need to buy commercially sold insecticide sprays and dusts made from tropical plants such as derris (rotenone), pyrethrum, or ryania, which unfortunately also kill useful cold-blooded animals such as toads, frogs, and snakes. If used at all, they should be used selectively and not applied in a blank, indiscriminate fashion.

Importing predators, such as praying mantises, trichogramma wasps, or ladybugs is probably not necessary. Often they will not stay in the garden, and usually there should be enough natural predators in the area, unless mindless spraying has severely decimated the predator population.

It should not be necessary to use such radical interventions as viral (e.g., nuclear polyhedrosis) and bacteriological (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis) means. Light traps and electrocuters, composed of fluorescent tubes and a high voltage grid, are to be avoided, for they lure insects from the surrounding countryside and often friendly or harmless bugs are destroyed en masse this way. The use of pheromones, hormonal control (juvenile hormones), and putting bugs through blenders and then spraying them seem unnecessarily cruel. Such practices probably work to shock the genius (group soul) of the species and will most likely have unforeseen repercussions. It goes without saying that the synthetic sprays that are carcinogenic or mutagenic—that kill friendly insects, birds, and mammals; contaminate soils, groundwater, and mother's milk—should be avoided altogether.

For more specific information, the reader is advised to consult the literature of the Organic Gardening Movement (Rodale Press) and of the Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association.